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The Cophen Campaign was a campaign conducted by Alexander III of Macedon between May 327 BC〔Dodge 1890, p. 509〕 all the way to March 326 BC〔Dodge 1890, p. 540〕 It was conducted in the modern Punjab region, in the area specifically known as Swat, Pakistan. Alexander's goal was to secure his line of communications so that he could conduct a campaign in India proper without having to fear for his communications. To this effect, he had to take a number of fortresses from various Barbarian (needs citation) tribes. ==Background== Alexander had assumed the throne of Ancient Macedonia when he was 20 years of age after his father was assassinated at the hands of an intimate body guard . Having taken up his throne and put down all those who contested his claim to it, he then set about to confirm his rule of Ancient Greece as Hegemon. A number of measures had been taken up by the Greek city states to reclaim their independence from the Macedonians. He marched his army to Thebes, at which point Thebes surrendered, promptly followed by Athens. It was around this point that Alexander made the decision to leave Ancient Sparta independent,〔Fuller 1959, p. 83〕 due to the political implications that would have in his capacity as Hegemon of Greece, it would depict him in the light of an autocrat instead of the ruler by the consent of the governed. He therefore decided to leave Antipater as his regent in Greece, with a force equal to the Spartans in the case that they should get ambitious.〔Fuller 1959, p. 84〕 It was as the result of this decision that he decided to extend the borders of his Macedonian Kingdom—in other words he was simultaneously Hegemon of Greece, which was a strictly a civil office and the outright monarch of Macedonia—to the Danube river and subdue all the tribes between the northern Macedonian border and the right bank of the Danube,〔 which he did. Greece required some final mopping up before he could begin his father's long planned expedition against the Achaemenid Empire. Crossing the Hellespont in the early part of spring 334 BC,〔Dodge 1890, p. 225〕 he had with him 30,000 infantry and 5,200 cavalry.〔Dodge 1890, p. 226〕 He subsequently marched east to the river Granicus and defeated the Persians there at the battle of the Granicus.〔Fuller 1959, p. 91〕 From there, he marched westward to the coast of Asia Minor, and then south, weaving it through Asia Minor's coast taking a number of critical ports of call from the Persians,〔Fuller 1959, p. 92〕 who had stationed garrisons in all the major oppidums situated on the coast. These were largely Greek city states, and it was critical that they should be friendly to his cause, so he settled their local disputes and set about settling new governments more preferable to the local inhabitants.〔 At Miletus, the last city on the western coast of Asia Minor and critical to his control of Asia Minor, Alexander decided to disband his fleet and take the rest of the cities along the coast by land. There were a number of reasons for this; it would free up 30,000 sailors who could be employed in garrison duty along his lines of communication to Macedon and Antipiter (Alexander is notable in his capacity as a general for his scrupulousness towards his lines of communication);〔Delbrück 1990, p. 231〕 his fleet was costing him fifty talents a month (which was equal to a month's rations);〔Dodge 1890, p. 261〕 his fleet was only 160 ships〔 strong—it had no chance of defeating the Persian fleet (400 strong)〔 who had superior sailors—and a defeat would have terrible results on not only his men's moral but on the political situation in Greece. If he had not already developed it, it was at this point that he decided to take the Mediterranean sea coast of the Persian Empire before proceeding into the heartland of the Empire. He finished taking the coast of Anatolia in early 333 BC〔Fuller 1959, p. 97〕 He met Darius III on the extreme east coast of the Mediterranean and fought him at the Battle of Issus,〔Fuller 1959, p. 99〕 which was a disastrous route for the Persians.〔Delbrück 1990, p. 200〕 The battle itself lasted less than ten minutes. From Issus, Alexander proceeded along the coast of Phoenicia, taking the various maritime trading centers existing on the coast—there being 25 of those in all.〔Fuller 1959, p. 206〕 He received the submission from a number of their kings, potentates or oligarchies.〔Fuller 1959, p. 101〕 It was at that point, on news of Darius's defeat that the Persian fleet started to crumble, and came over to serve under their new king.〔Fuller 1959, p. 102〕 Notably, he received an embassy from the city of Tyre—the King of Tyre being with the Persian fleet in the Aegean〔Fuller 1959, p. 207〕—desiring to know what his demands would be—as they would be willing to accept whatever terms he requested〔—he requested that he be allowed to sacrifice in the Tyrian temple of Heracles (Melkart).〔〔 This request was denied, on the grounds that tradition dictated that only the Tyrian king could do this.〔 Alexander, had been unaware of this when he made the request.〔 To the Tyrian's, allowing him to do this tacitly implied that he was their king.〔 As the embassies, under whatever pretense, did not explain this particular aspect of their tradition to him, told him that they would grant him any request except this one, Alexander became angry and dismissed the embassy with contumely.〔 As a result, a seven-month siege ensued, the most celebrated of all antiquity. As a result of this, and the Persian fleet he'd won, including Tyre's, he won the control of the Mediterranean. From here he marched along the rest of the Mediterranean-Persian coast, notably taking Gaza in another difficult siege. After the siege of Gaza the Macedonians slew all the men in the city,〔Fuller 1959, p. 218〕 and enslaved all the women and children.〔Fuller 1959, p. 104〕 He proceeded to take Egypt, which fell without a fight. As a result of his march around the entire Mediterranean coast of the Persian Empire, his rear was absolutely secure; he could proceed into the interior of the Persian Empire without fear for his rear. It was around this time that Alexander received a letter from Darius entreating him to give him his mother, wife and children—which he'd captured after Darius' unceremonious 〔Delbrück 1990, p. 198〕 flight from Issus.〔Fuller 1959, p. 100〕 These were valuable assets, as Alexander could employ them as bargaining chips if matters should prove problematical. However, Alexander denied this request in spite of the offer of friendship and alliance.〔 His reply was Your ancestors came into Macedonia and the rest of Greece and treated us ill, without any previous injury from us. I, having been appointed commander and chief of the Greeks, and wishing to take revenge on the Persians, crossed over into Asia, hostilities being begun by you. For you sent aid to the Perinthians,’ who were dealing unjustly with my father; and Ochus sent forces into Thrace, which was under our rule. My father was killed by conspirators whom you instigated as you have yourself boasted to all in your letters; and after slaying Arses, as well as Bagoas, and unjustly seizing the throne contrary to the law of the Persians, and ruling your subjects unjustly, you sent unfriendly letters about me to the Greeks, urging them to wage war with me. You have also despatched money to the Lacedaemonians, and certain other Greeks; but none of the States received it, except the Lacedaemonians. As your agents corrupted my friends, and were striving to dissolve the league which I had formed among the Greeks, I took the field against you, because you were the party who commenced the hostility. Since I have vanquished your generals and viceroys in the previous battle, and now yourself and your forces in like manner, I am, by the gift of the gods, in possession of your land. As many of the men who fought in your army as were not killed in the battle, but fled to me for refuge, I am protecting; and they are with me, not against their own will, but they are serving in my army as volunteers. Come to me therefore~ since I am lord of all Asia; but if you are afraid you may suffer any harsh treatment from me in case you come to me, send some of your friends to receive pledges of safety from me. Come to me then, and ask for your mother, wife, and children, and anything else you wish. For whatever you ask for you will receive; and nothing shall be denied you. But for the future, whenever you send to me, send to me as the king of Asia, and do not address to me your wishes as to an equal; but if you are in need of anything, speak to me as to the man who is lord of all your territories. If you act otherwise, I shall deliberate concerning you as an evil-doer; and if you dispute my right to the kingdom, stay and fight another battle for it; but do not run away. For wherever you may be, I intend to march against you.〔Arrian 1890, XV〕 After the battle of Issus, Darius had fled to assemble a new army from the eastern reaches of his kingdom.〔Delbrück 1990, p. 210〕 Alexander marched his army at top speed to meet Darius, and finally made headway into the Persian heartland, Mesopotamia.〔Dodge 1890, p. 355〕 Crossing these fertile plains, he gathered victual 〔 and founded cities along his lines of communication back to Macedonia〔 to secure his communications. He crossed the Tigris north of Eski Mosul, near Nineveh; the crossing was difficult on account of the current but it was not disputed by the Persians.〔Dodge 1890, p. 357〕 At the final battle for the Persian Empire, near the town of Arbela, the battle of Gaugumela was another complete defeat for the Persians. As a result of this victory, Alexander easily gained both Babylon and Susa—two of the political centers of the Empire.〔 After taking these cities, the Macedonians had a difficult fight in the pass known as the battle of the Persian Gates, which he was able to take by ruse.〔Dodge 1890, p. 408〕 It was as a result of taking this pass that Alexander was able to take the ancient capital of the Persian Empire, known as Passargadae.〔 From this point, Alexander proceeded with the goal of capturing Darius in mind.〔Fuller 1959, p. 112〕 After a high-speed pursuit over great distances—marching from the Caspian Gates to Shahrud (253 miles) in just seven days—he found Darius had been killed by his cousin Bessus.〔Fuller 1959, p. 113〕〔Dodge 1890, p. 424〕 A march of 253 miles in seven days is an average of thirty-six miles a day—and it was mid-summer and much of the country the Macedonians marched over was barren and dry.〔 This was a splendid feat. Alexander then took up the formal titles of the Persian monarch, and started to wear their clothing and tiara, which upset the Macedonians.〔 He also demanded that the Persians pay him proskynesis, which they did.〔 The topic of paying Alexander homage in the traditional Persian fashion caused a lot of problems in the Macedonian camp.〔Dodge 1890, p. 436〕 However, the attire of state only pertained to the affairs of state.〔 Whenever Alexander took the field with his Macedonians, he always took up his traditional Macedonian armour—with its notable white plumes on the helmet, which made him so auspicious to his men while in the field.〔 After having seized Darius' body, Alexander reorganized his army and gave it rest after its incredible exertions. His army was strung out as not all the men had been able to keep up. Bessus had taken up the royal Persian vestments and Tiara as Artaxerxes IV—and marched into Bactria where he was gathering support with the Scythians.〔Dodge 1890, p. 438〕 A number of problems arose on his march towards Bessus, including a revolt in his rear while marching towards Bessus.〔 It was as a result of this that Alexander marched his army in a huge arc down to the south before settling with Bessus.〔Dodge 1890, p. 439〕 Alexander would spend the next two years settling the affairs of this region. Matters became so problematical that he eventually settled on massacring the majority of the population. This business took up some time, but the majority of it was small arms war against numerous rebellions arising in his front or rear from whatever point he was advancing towards or away from. Notably, he faced off with Spitamenes at this time, a very able Persian Satrap who had fought at Gaugumela. This Satrap caused Alexander many problems, and Alexander chased him to and fro across Aria, Bactria and Sogdiana for no short length of time.〔Dodge 1890, p. 479〕 However, after some time the Scythians whom Spitamenes had taken up with were sick of running from Alexander, who it seemed, would never let them rest as long as Spitamenes lived.〔 They killed Spitamenes, and to appease Alexander they gave the King his head as a gift.〔Dodge 1890, p. 492〕 However, the inhabitants of this region would never be completely content unless there were forced to do so, and to this effect he would eventually be forced to garrison the region with 10,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry.〔Dodge 1890, p. 511〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Cophen Campaign」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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